Mr Largo, in this country, children usually start school at the age of six, after leaving nursery. It's a milestone for the whole family.
That's exactly how I feel. For parents and children alike, starting school marks the beginning of the «real world». Parents are anxious to see how their child will cope at school. The children are excited to finally be allowed to go to school. They want to learn to read and do maths. They beam at the teacher, even though they don't know her at all yet. They want her to accept them and support them in their learning.
The differences in development amount to at least three years by the time children start school. By the time they reach upper secondary school, these differences have increased significantly once again.
In your books, you repeatedly emphasise the extreme differences in children's development, not only in the early years of life but also during their school years. You refer to this as inter-individual variability.
When a teacher is faced with a Year 1 class of twenty six-year-olds, the children differ in their developmental age by at least three years. For example, a boy – let's call him Marcel – is at the developmental level of a seven-and-a-half-year-old and can already read, whilst Laura, who is the same age but at a developmental level of four-and-a-half years, is still a long way from that. To complicate matters further, the children may also differ by up to a year in their chronological age.
That means the oldest child in the class has their birthday at the end of August – at the start of the school year – and the youngest in the following June – at the end of the school year. Won't Marcel and Laura catch up with each other over the course of their school years?
On the contrary. By the time pupils reach secondary school, the differences increase significantly once again. At the age of 13, the developmental age ranges from 10 to 16 years between the most advanced children in a class and those who are developing most slowly.
Parents are also often surprised at how differently talents can manifest themselves, not only amongst siblings but even within the same child. Little Anna, for example, is already very good at reading, but still struggles with maths. How can this be explained?
This stems from the diversity within the child itself – what is known as intra-individual variability. This diversity means that every child, and indeed every adult, has their own unique profile of abilities. For example, a Year 1 pupil may already be a good reader, but may still struggle with arithmetic. For parents and, above all, for teachers, this means that they must adapt their approach to each child individually, depending on their abilities and learning situation. This is expressly required by the School Act of the Canton of Zurich. Together with the numerous differences between children, this presents a major pedagogical challenge.
How can a teacher rise to this challenge?
Not by basing her approach on the curriculum – and thus on the average level of the class – and hoping that she can bring Laura up to the level of the six-year-olds without boring Marcel in the process – as is, unfortunately, still far too often the case. For reasons of developmental biology, this simply cannot work.
What are the consequences of this sort of «level-playing-field» approach?
The average – let's say around two-thirds of pupils – keep up well in class, are motivated, can meet the requirements and do well in their studies. One-sixth are bored and feel that the work is too easy for them. Perhaps these children adapt and behave quietly, but perhaps they are also frustrated and start to display behavioural problems. And then there is a final one-sixth who are overwhelmed by the curriculum. They fail to make progress, which has a negative impact on their motivation to learn and their self-esteem. Whether they are underchallenged or overwhelmed, the children lose their enjoyment of school.
The educational challenge for teachers is to identify the level of difficulty at which the child really gets to grips with the work.
What could lead to a refusal to learn?
In the worst-case scenario: yes.
How can teachers do better?
By giving each child tasks that they are able to complete given their stage of development. As a general rule, every child wants to develop – and therefore to learn. But in their own way and at their own pace. Motivation to learn is maintained and self-esteem is boosted when the demands of school and the child's abilities are so well aligned that the child is usually successful in their learning efforts. The educational challenge for teachers lies in identifying the level of demand at which the child really «gets stuck in».
Not an easy task when there are twenty or more pupils in a class...
Do you agree? Teachers have always told me that this form of personalised learning makes life easier not only for the children but also for themselves: the children are more motivated, more attentive and, ultimately, more cooperative. Personalised teaching gives the teacher a sense of fulfilment, as it enables them to understand and support the child better – which is hugely rewarding.
Children acquire 40 per cent of their skills and knowledge from their classmates.
I know of primary schools in Germany where the class groups have been disbanded and the pupils are now taught solely in year groups. Each child works on their tasks either alone or in pairs. The teacher teaches new material in small groups.
There are positive examples of this here too, in both private and state schools. It has also been shown that around 40 per cent of the skills and knowledge that children acquire do not come from the teacher, but from their classmates – usually the older ones – which in turn has a positive effect on the social development of all pupils.
Many teachers report that it is often the parents who demand rapid progress through the curriculum.
Unfortunately. There is a great deal of social pressure behind this. The fear that we may have reached the peak of prosperity is becoming increasingly widespread. After decades of steady economic growth, things could now be heading downhill. Parents want to use every means of support at their disposal to ensure that their children's social status is maintained. Parents pass this existential fear on to their children in the form of pressure: the more successful their academic career, the better the prospects for my child.
As a result, early learning courses for babies and toddlers are booming, and private tutors are also doing a roaring trade.
Which does the children absolutely no good. Children want to have experiences of their own choosing that are appropriate to their stage of development. There are parents who hold up letter charts in front of their two-year-old's face every day in the hope that they will learn to read earlier. This obsession with early learning has nothing to do with the child or their learning behaviour. On the contrary, it can lead to a decline in the child's motivation to learn and their self-esteem, thereby hindering their development.
So is there really no point in going over letters and numbers with your child before their first day at school?
If the child does not yet show any spontaneous interest in it, the parents will only make them feel unnecessarily insecure. I am not aware of any study that convincingly demonstrates that increased practice can accelerate a child's development.
Parents should always support their child, especially when things aren't going well at school.
And what if the interest comes from the child?
In that case, parents should support their child. There are three- to four-year-olds who practically teach themselves to read. Stifling a child's desire to learn is just as wrong as placing excessive demands on a child who is struggling.
When pushing doesn't work: How can parents behave more effectively?
Parents must learn to deal with their own fears and expectations by questioning them. There is one thing they can be sure of: their child wants to develop. I do not know of any child – including those with disabilities – who is not curious and eager to learn. The question for us is rather whether we, as parents and teachers, accept the pace of their development or not. A very important role for parents is to always support their child, especially when things aren't going well at school: «We're convinced you can learn, and we think you're trying really hard.» Criticism or even punishment is toxic for the child. It makes them feel insecure and abandoned; in the worst case, rejected.
And what if a child seems to be underchallenged at school?
Just as with a child feeling overwhelmed, parents can raise this issue in a conversation with the teacher. The extent to which the teacher addresses this will depend on the individual teacher. However, parents can also take steps themselves to ensure that their child feels more challenged. When it comes to reading, for example, this is very simple: take your child to a library, have a look at what's on offer together, and let your child choose which book they'd like to take home.
What is the most important contribution that parents and teachers can make to a child's development?
A good relationship, characterised by consistency, reliability and trust, is the fundamental prerequisite for a child to be able to learn at all. And to convey the certainty that: «We believe in you; you can learn and you can make a difference.» Fostering a strong sense of self-worth and self-efficacy is just as important as imparting skills and knowledge. Only in this way will children grow into young adults who believe in themselves and are confident that they will thrive in this world.
